What drove Charles Darwin to his extraordinary ideas on evolution and human origins? Adrian Desmond, with co-author James Moore, argue in a new book that the great scientist had a "sacred cause": the abolition of slavery.
It makes one's blood boil," said Charles Darwin.
Not much outraged the gentle recluse, but the horrors of slavery could cost him a night's sleep.
He was thinking of the whipped house boy and the thumbscrews used by old ladies in South America, atrocities he had witnessed on the Beagle voyage.
The screams stayed with him for life, but how much did they influence his life's work?
Today you can still read of Darwin's "eureka" moment when he saw the Galapagos finches.
Alas, his conversion to evolution wasn't so simple, but it was much more interesting. It didn't occur in the Galapagos, but probably on his arrival home.
And new evidence suggests that Darwin's unique approach to evolution - relating all races and species by "common descent" - could have been fostered by his anti-slavery beliefs.
Not much outraged the gentle recluse, but the horrors of slavery could cost him a night's sleep.
He was thinking of the whipped house boy and the thumbscrews used by old ladies in South America, atrocities he had witnessed on the Beagle voyage.
The screams stayed with him for life, but how much did they influence his life's work?
Today you can still read of Darwin's "eureka" moment when he saw the Galapagos finches.
Alas, his conversion to evolution wasn't so simple, but it was much more interesting. It didn't occur in the Galapagos, but probably on his arrival home.
And new evidence suggests that Darwin's unique approach to evolution - relating all races and species by "common descent" - could have been fostered by his anti-slavery beliefs.
Development of Darwin's theory.....
The Development of Darwin's theory began with a search for explanations of contradictions in current faith based ideas, and led him to formulate his theory of evolution which was eventually published in his book On the Origin of Species, a turning point in the history of evolutionary thought.
Following the inception of Darwin's theory in 1838, he worked on explaining the species question through natural selection as his “prime hobby” in the background to his main occupation of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. Publication of his Journal and Remarks (now known as The Voyage of the Beagle) brought him success as an author. He was settling into married life, but suffered from bouts of illness and they moved to rural Down House away from the pressures of London. He discussed his theory with friends, and wrote up an essay setting out his basic ideas as well as continuing with experiments and wide investigations.
In 1846 he completed his third geological book, and turned from supervising the publication of expert reports on the findings from the voyage to examining barnacle specimens himself. This grew into an eight year study, establishing his expertise as a biologist and finding support for his theory. His treasured daughter suffered a long illness and died, shaking his dwindling faith in Christianity. In 1854 he resumed work on the species question. This would lead to the publication of Darwin's theory.
Charles Darwin became a naturalist at a point in the history of evolutionary thought when theories of Transmutation were being developed to explain discrepancies in the established faith based explanations of species. He considered these problems at first hand during the Beagle survey. On its return in 1836 his ideas developed rapidly. His collections and writings established him as an eminent geologist and collector.
Darwin read Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population in the context of his findings about species relating to localities, enquiries into animal breeding, and ideas of Natural "laws of harmony". Around late November 1838 he related breeders selecting traits to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected", thinking this "the most beautiful part of my theory" of how species originated.
His theory of how species originated had now come together in principle, but he was vividly aware of the difficulties he would face in getting it accepted by his friends and colleagues in the scientific establishment. On 19 December 1838 as secretary of the Geological Society of London Darwin witnessed the vicious interrogation by Richard Owen and his allies of Darwin's old tutor Robert Edmund Grant in which they ridiculed Grant's Lamarckian heresy, showing establishment intolerance of materialist theories.
Following the inception of Darwin's theory in 1838, he worked on explaining the species question through natural selection as his “prime hobby” in the background to his main occupation of publishing the scientific results of the Beagle voyage. Publication of his Journal and Remarks (now known as The Voyage of the Beagle) brought him success as an author. He was settling into married life, but suffered from bouts of illness and they moved to rural Down House away from the pressures of London. He discussed his theory with friends, and wrote up an essay setting out his basic ideas as well as continuing with experiments and wide investigations.
In 1846 he completed his third geological book, and turned from supervising the publication of expert reports on the findings from the voyage to examining barnacle specimens himself. This grew into an eight year study, establishing his expertise as a biologist and finding support for his theory. His treasured daughter suffered a long illness and died, shaking his dwindling faith in Christianity. In 1854 he resumed work on the species question. This would lead to the publication of Darwin's theory.
Charles Darwin became a naturalist at a point in the history of evolutionary thought when theories of Transmutation were being developed to explain discrepancies in the established faith based explanations of species. He considered these problems at first hand during the Beagle survey. On its return in 1836 his ideas developed rapidly. His collections and writings established him as an eminent geologist and collector.
Darwin read Malthus's Essay on the Principle of Population in the context of his findings about species relating to localities, enquiries into animal breeding, and ideas of Natural "laws of harmony". Around late November 1838 he related breeders selecting traits to a Malthusian Nature selecting from variants thrown up by "chance" so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practised and perfected", thinking this "the most beautiful part of my theory" of how species originated.
His theory of how species originated had now come together in principle, but he was vividly aware of the difficulties he would face in getting it accepted by his friends and colleagues in the scientific establishment. On 19 December 1838 as secretary of the Geological Society of London Darwin witnessed the vicious interrogation by Richard Owen and his allies of Darwin's old tutor Robert Edmund Grant in which they ridiculed Grant's Lamarckian heresy, showing establishment intolerance of materialist theories.
Darwin theory to develop new technologies......
Still a flash point among fundamentalist Christians, the theory of evolution proposed by Charles Darwin 150 years ago has become an indispensable tool for biologists to comprehend the natural world.
Yet as scientists mark Darwin’s 200th birthday this month, evolution is no longer simply a narrative of life. Scientists have begun using it as a tool to develop new technologies.
By doing so, they have improved law enforcement, created smarter computer programs and are remaking the field of medicine. There have been quirkier applications, such as cleaner clothes, too.
Only recently, though, have scientists begun calling attention to these breakthroughs, as the ideas of the iconic English naturalist have faced renewed attacks.
In Texas, controversy over Darwin’s work resurfaced last month when the State Board of Education narrowly voted to delete a provision that required the teaching of the weaknesses and strengths of evolutionary theory. The board is to act soon on a proposal that would require students to consider the evolutionary principle that all organisms have a common ancestor. Supporters say they want children to understand there are viable alternatives to evolution.
But Andy Ellington, a University of Texas evolutionary biologist, called that argument “almost amusing.”
“You have these folks who are trying to suggest that we shouldn’t teach evolution as something our kids need to know,” he said. “But at the same time, there are these new technologies out there shaping our lives every day.”
Darwin, born Feb. 12, 1809, sailed from England in 1831 on a five-year voyage around the world. During the journey, he took copious notes about the variability of flora and fauna.
Darwin’s observations in A Naturalist’s Voyage Around the World eventually led to the notions of natural selection and evolution, theories he laid out in On the Origin of Species, the 150th anniversary of which comes in December.
Thanks to the discovery of DNA’s structure in 1953 and the mapping of the human genome half a century later, biologists now say they understand the mechanisms by which genes mutate and species evolve. And they’re using that knowledge in increasingly powerful ways.
One of the first and most well-known uses of evolutionary theory has come in law enforcement.
Among the 3 billion or so chemical bits, or letters, in human DNA are those that change slowly and those that mutate rapidly. Scientists realized that short segments of DNA vary greatly from person to person as a result. The finding gave rise to the concept of DNA fingerprints to identify individuals.
Crime-fighting, medicineBy the late 1980s, scientists were testifying in court about the reliability of DNA evidence to convict criminals. Such evidence has become a powerful forensic tool.
“It’s had a tremendous impact on criminal justice, not the least of which has been to free a lot of innocent people,” said Rusty Hardin, now a defense lawyer who in 1988 prosecuted the first Harris County case that used DNA evidence.
In recent years, the concept of genetic identification has been extended to such areas as vintage wines and Beluga caviar, where buyers want surety that what they’re buying is authentic.
Evolution also has helped scientists become smarter about the development and use of medicines such as antibiotics and vaccines.
Physicians now understand that bacteria mutate over time. When attacked by antibiotics, some bacteria become resistant to certain antibiotics and thrive.
“Evolutionary theory has definitely guided us, and now we as a medical community know to be much more careful about the use of antibiotics,” said Dr. James Versalovic, a Baylor College of Medicine professor and the director of microbiology at Texas Children’s Hospital.
The evolution of viruses also is critical to the development of vaccines. Some viruses, such as polio, have genetic material that changes slowly over time, allowing physicians to create a vaccine that will last for life.
Other viruses, including influenza and HIV, are constantly changing. This requires annual changes to the flu vaccine and has prevented development of a successful vaccine against HIV.
“We know we are in a world where we are in a constant competition with bacteria and viruses,” said Dan Graur, a University of Houston biologist. “We need to use evolutionary principles just to keep them under control.”
Some scientists also use evolution to develop drugs to combat disease, an approach called “directed evolution.”
Biologists employing this method generate a large batch of random segments of DNA — short strips of biological material — which are then tested to see whether any will perform a useful function inside cells, such as binding to a protein. The DNA segments that fail at the task are eliminated; those that succeed are copied in such a way that new mutations are introduced. These new variants then are tested. The process is replicated many times until an optimal sequence is found.
Computer programsThe approach has led to treatments for an eye disease called wet macular degeneration and other diseases, said Ellington, the UT-Austin biologist whose lab conducts directed evolution experiments.
Computer scientists use a similar process, called evolutionary or genetic algorithms. This technique involves many people writing computer programs for a certain task, such as managing air traffic or weather forecasting. Just as members of a species compete for resources in the wild, the programs compete with one another, mixing and matching lines of code and ultimately producing the most efficient algorithm for a certain task.
A company called Maxygen has applied this process to basic household goods.
Enzymes help speed up chemical reactions and are often good at digesting fats, starches and proteins — the kinds of materials that stain clothes. Maxygen collected enzymes from different bacteria, chopped and mixed them, and created new enzymes.
Yet as scientists mark Darwin’s 200th birthday this month, evolution is no longer simply a narrative of life. Scientists have begun using it as a tool to develop new technologies.
By doing so, they have improved law enforcement, created smarter computer programs and are remaking the field of medicine. There have been quirkier applications, such as cleaner clothes, too.
Only recently, though, have scientists begun calling attention to these breakthroughs, as the ideas of the iconic English naturalist have faced renewed attacks.
In Texas, controversy over Darwin’s work resurfaced last month when the State Board of Education narrowly voted to delete a provision that required the teaching of the weaknesses and strengths of evolutionary theory. The board is to act soon on a proposal that would require students to consider the evolutionary principle that all organisms have a common ancestor. Supporters say they want children to understand there are viable alternatives to evolution.
But Andy Ellington, a University of Texas evolutionary biologist, called that argument “almost amusing.”
“You have these folks who are trying to suggest that we shouldn’t teach evolution as something our kids need to know,” he said. “But at the same time, there are these new technologies out there shaping our lives every day.”
Darwin, born Feb. 12, 1809, sailed from England in 1831 on a five-year voyage around the world. During the journey, he took copious notes about the variability of flora and fauna.
Darwin’s observations in A Naturalist’s Voyage Around the World eventually led to the notions of natural selection and evolution, theories he laid out in On the Origin of Species, the 150th anniversary of which comes in December.
Thanks to the discovery of DNA’s structure in 1953 and the mapping of the human genome half a century later, biologists now say they understand the mechanisms by which genes mutate and species evolve. And they’re using that knowledge in increasingly powerful ways.
One of the first and most well-known uses of evolutionary theory has come in law enforcement.
Among the 3 billion or so chemical bits, or letters, in human DNA are those that change slowly and those that mutate rapidly. Scientists realized that short segments of DNA vary greatly from person to person as a result. The finding gave rise to the concept of DNA fingerprints to identify individuals.
Crime-fighting, medicineBy the late 1980s, scientists were testifying in court about the reliability of DNA evidence to convict criminals. Such evidence has become a powerful forensic tool.
“It’s had a tremendous impact on criminal justice, not the least of which has been to free a lot of innocent people,” said Rusty Hardin, now a defense lawyer who in 1988 prosecuted the first Harris County case that used DNA evidence.
In recent years, the concept of genetic identification has been extended to such areas as vintage wines and Beluga caviar, where buyers want surety that what they’re buying is authentic.
Evolution also has helped scientists become smarter about the development and use of medicines such as antibiotics and vaccines.
Physicians now understand that bacteria mutate over time. When attacked by antibiotics, some bacteria become resistant to certain antibiotics and thrive.
“Evolutionary theory has definitely guided us, and now we as a medical community know to be much more careful about the use of antibiotics,” said Dr. James Versalovic, a Baylor College of Medicine professor and the director of microbiology at Texas Children’s Hospital.
The evolution of viruses also is critical to the development of vaccines. Some viruses, such as polio, have genetic material that changes slowly over time, allowing physicians to create a vaccine that will last for life.
Other viruses, including influenza and HIV, are constantly changing. This requires annual changes to the flu vaccine and has prevented development of a successful vaccine against HIV.
“We know we are in a world where we are in a constant competition with bacteria and viruses,” said Dan Graur, a University of Houston biologist. “We need to use evolutionary principles just to keep them under control.”
Some scientists also use evolution to develop drugs to combat disease, an approach called “directed evolution.”
Biologists employing this method generate a large batch of random segments of DNA — short strips of biological material — which are then tested to see whether any will perform a useful function inside cells, such as binding to a protein. The DNA segments that fail at the task are eliminated; those that succeed are copied in such a way that new mutations are introduced. These new variants then are tested. The process is replicated many times until an optimal sequence is found.
Computer programsThe approach has led to treatments for an eye disease called wet macular degeneration and other diseases, said Ellington, the UT-Austin biologist whose lab conducts directed evolution experiments.
Computer scientists use a similar process, called evolutionary or genetic algorithms. This technique involves many people writing computer programs for a certain task, such as managing air traffic or weather forecasting. Just as members of a species compete for resources in the wild, the programs compete with one another, mixing and matching lines of code and ultimately producing the most efficient algorithm for a certain task.
A company called Maxygen has applied this process to basic household goods.
Enzymes help speed up chemical reactions and are often good at digesting fats, starches and proteins — the kinds of materials that stain clothes. Maxygen collected enzymes from different bacteria, chopped and mixed them, and created new enzymes.
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